There are also several other common methods to detect and measure dehydration including urine osmolality, urine color, urine specific gravity, weight fluctuation, bioelectrical impedance (BIA), urea creatinine ratio, tongue/mouth dryness, dry mucosa, jugular distention, axillary moistness, sunken eyes, skin moisture and turgor. P osm also can only diagnose the water-loss dehydration and cannot be used to diagnose water-solute-loss. showed that it is inaccurate in reflecting the total body water gains and losses and should not be used in a clinical setting. However, since P osm varies throughout the day and is very dependent on other factors, Armstrong et al. Some researchers argue that though P osm is not adequate to assess chronic dehydration status as it changes constantly, it is best for detecting acute dehydration. This method is invasive and is impractical for routine measurement. Although some studies mentioned that the gold standard to measure hydration level is blood serum/plasma osmolality (P osm), this has been highly disputed. People with chronic kidney stones must track fluid intake to ensure they are sufficiently hydrated to prevent stone formation, and aim for a urine output of 2.5 L per day in adults. For example, heart failure patients must track their liquid intake and output volume to ensure they are not retaining liquid in the body. Monitoring fluid intake/output (fluid cycle) is critical to either diagnose or prevent complications. Other factors including swallowing difficulties, ambulation difficulties, and dexterity can also lead to dehydration in seniors by lowering liquid intake. Additionally, some elderly patients with dementia forget to drink, and some choose not to drink because of a fear of experiencing an incontinent episode or urinating too frequently. Medications such as diuretics, which are commonly prescribed for heart failure and some kidney disorders, can cause excessive urination, leading to fluid and salt loss. Dehydration can result in confusion, seizures or even death. Older adults are more susceptible to chronic renal problems, causing electrolyte abnormalities however, these abnormalities can also occur without renal problems. If a healthy young person limits fluid intake, urine output will also decrease however, this is not the case for elderly people. The sensation of thirst decreases in seniors, while they have more difficulty concentrating urine in the bladder. The total amount of water in the body reduces by 10–15% in seniors, which makes them vulnerable to small volume fluctuations. Seniors are at a higher risk of hypertonic dehydration for a multitude of reasons surrounding reduced fluid intake and excessive output. Dehydration is subdivided as hypertonic (water loss, caused by inadequate intake, sweating/evaporation or vomiting), isotonic (salt and water lost proportionally caused often by diarrhea), and hypotonic (salt loss, often caused by diuretics). Even after accounting for confounders, elderly dehydrated patients admitted to the hospital are six times more likely to die than those with normal hydration status. Patients admitted to the hospital for dehydration have a 17% chance of mortality in the first 30 days and a 48% chance after 1 year. The areas that need further research and the challenges for each category are discussed in detail.ĭehydration is a common issue in elderly people that can lead to serious complications and death. It was observed that the most promising results came from studies that used data fusion from multiple technologies, compared to using an individual technology. A detailed performance evaluation was carried out considering detection accuracy, usability and availability. The available technologies are divided into four categories: wearables, surfaces with embedded sensors, vision- and environmental-based solutions, and smart containers. This paper reviews the most recent solutions to automatic fluid intake monitoring both commercially and in the literature. Real-time systems for monitoring fluid intake will not only measure the exact amount consumed by the users, but could also motivate people to maintain a healthy lifestyle by providing feedback to encourage them to hydrate regularly throughout the day. Numerous critical health problems are associated with poor or excessive drinking such as swelling of the brain and heart failure. Fluid intake monitoring is an essential component in preventing dehydration and overhydration, especially for the senior population.
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